[87514] in SIPB IPv6
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daemon@ATHENA.MIT.EDU (Amazon Rewards)
Thu Dec 29 12:54:37 2016
Date: Thu, 29 Dec 2016 12:32:20 -0500
From: "Amazon Rewards" <amazon-rewards@graburprimecard.com>
To: <sipbv6-mtg@charon2.mit.edu>
------=_Part_163_3074668.1483032735708
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(http://www.graburprimecard.com/c9b8W6pH7f_P9mnvkLX-dhVtFMuKmji10hvV0ONW925/dispensation-conscientiously
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Maya Culture & History Belize's first and most enduring inhabitants, the Ma=
ya, left a rich legacy of art, science and mathematics that continues to un=
fold and astound us. Much of this ancient knowledge was lost when Spanish c=
onquistadors laid waste to the extensive Maya libraries and administrative =
centres, but, fortunately, the Maya recorded parts of their history and pre=
dictions in stone inscriptions that can be seen today in stelae and the rem=
ains of elaborate cities, buildings and temples that survived centuries of =
jungle encroachment. It was only relatively recently that Maya writing, or =
glyphs, were deciphered and the richness of this advanced jungle civilisati=
on came to light. Archaeologists and linguists continue to unravel the anci=
ent riddles of Maya civilisation, and we now have a better picture of this =
intricate, enigmatic civilisation. History of the Mayans Today's Maya are d=
escendants of nomadic people who settled in Belize, Guatemala, Mexico's Yuc=
atan Peninsula,
El Salvador and Honduras. While the beginning of the early habitation is op=
en to debate, the Maya Long Count Calendar gives a Maya creation date of 11=
August, 3114 BC, and traces of Maya habitation at Cuello, in Belize, were =
recently carbon dated to around 2600 BC. The Maya Early Preclassic period, =
from which we have some of the earliest examples of Maya pottery and art, l=
asted from 1800-900 B.C., and throughout the Middle Preclassic Maya (900-30=
0 B.C.) the civilisation continued to grow, so that by 800 BC, the Maya of =
the Guatemala Highlands controlled the important jade and obsidian trade ro=
utes to the Pet=C3=83=C2=A9n and the Pacific, and by 600 BC were producing =
and trading cacao. Mayan Civilization During the Late Preclassic Maya perio=
d (300BC- AD 300), the Maya civilisation continued to flourish as trade rou=
tes expanded along with advances in the cultivation of corn and the beginni=
ng of more complex agricultural practices, as well as construction of pyram=
ids and urban centres.
Maya society continued to develop based on an intricate cosmology that resu=
lted in complex calendars, writing and astute mathematical calculations. Ma=
ya civilisation advanced to new heights throughout the Classic period of 25=
0 to 900 AD, a time of intellectual, artistic and political development tha=
t established the Maya as one of the most advanced civilisations in the wor=
ld. It was during this time that Tikal, Caracol, Palenque, Altun Ha, Cop=C3=
=83=C2=A1n and other remarkable city states were established and flourished=
Innovation in arts, medicine and sciences, especially in the areas of mat=
hematics and astronomy were phenomenal. For example, by 36 BC the Maya deve=
loped the concept of zero =C3=A2=E2=82=AC=E2=80=9C an impressive feat which=
allowed them to work with heretofore unimaginable sums and dates, and was =
the basis for astronomical observations and calculations extremely accurate=
even by today's standards. In fact, the Maya measurement of the solar year=
is slightly more accurate than the Georgian
Calendar used today. In addition to reflecting a spiritual world, Maya urba=
n centres were efficiently and pragmatically designed, with the most advanc=
ed agricultural practices, water systems and food storage systems in the Am=
ericas. While the rich rainforests of Belize and surrounding areas provided=
an abundance of game and edible and medicinal plants, and the rivers and s=
eacoast teemed with fish and marine life, the Maya also developed their own=
crops, fish ponds and irrigation systems. Caracol, home to what is still t=
he tallest man-made structure in Belize, had a sophisticated water catchmen=
t system visible today. These large metropolises, characterised by imposing=
temples, broad causeways and open air plazas were also important trade cen=
tres. The Maya were enthusiastic long distance traders, bartering jade, obs=
idian, cacao, salt and sea shell for gold and other goods from as far away =
as Panama and the gulf coast of Mexico. While relatively little remains of =
their maritime
history, the Classic Maya most certainly had extensive trading sea routes a=
nd were able sailors. As the underworld was of particular importance in the=
Maya cosmology, a vast network of ceremonial caves was established for wor=
ship, sacrifice, and divination. This Maya sacred cave system is well prese=
rved and can be seen in Belize today. The intricacies of Maya society durin=
g the Preclassic and Classic periods are also subject to debate, but city-s=
tates appear to have consisted of small family settlements of people centre=
d around a royal household dominated by a king =C3=A2=E2=82=AC=E2=80=9Cthe =
Kuhul Ajaw - and his court. The royal family, as intermediaries between the=
gods and interpreters of time and celestial events, dictated the social, p=
olitical and religious functions of their polities. They also established c=
omplex relations, alliances and intrigues with neighbouring city-states, an=
d warfare and slave taking were not uncommon. The Kuhul Ajaw power at home =
was celebrated =C3=A2=E2=82=AC=E2=80=9C and cemented - with
elaborate rituals including human sacrifice and the renowned Maya ball game=
s. The great Maya centres of the southern lowlands began to decline between=
700 and 900 AD, and while no one know exactly why, several theories have b=
een advanced. Some scholars suggest overpopulation and collapse of the ecos=
ystem as the main cause, or disease epidemics, environmental disaster and o=
ther internal shocks, while others propose scenarios that involve foreign i=
nvasion, the collapse of trade and other external forces. A 200 year drough=
t combined with exhaustion of agricultural and natural resources has more r=
ecently gained wide acceptance as the most likely cause for the decline of =
the Maya civilisation. At any rate, the glorious days of the expansion of M=
aya empire were over. The Postclassic period (900 =C3=A2=E2=82=AC=E2=80=9C =
1500) saw development in northern areas, especially in Yucatan cities such =
as Chichen Itza. The Lake Pet=C3=83=C2=A9n Itza ruled over an area which in=
cludes present day Flores near the Belize border.
However, strife increased between competing city-states and the Maya Empire=
was in disarray by the time it was conquered by the Spanish in the 17thcen=
tury. The Spanish conquest of the Maya was a long and brutal campaign. Beca=
use there was no central ruler or government, the smaller Maya city-states =
had to be taken and controlled one by one, and they put up fierce resistanc=
e until the last Maya states were subdued in 1697, effectively spelling the=
end of Maya self rule.
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<p style=3D"border-image-outset:0px; padding-top: none; margin-right:=
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und-color: #FFF; color:#FFF; margin-left: default; margin-top: 3px !i=
mportant; padding-right: none; margin-bottom: 1.3969px; padding-left:=
4.5px; transition-timing-function: ease; border-bottom-width:0px; fo=
nt-family: Palatino,'Palatino Linotype','Palatino LT STD','Book Antiqua',Ge=
orgia,serif; cursor: default; list-style-type:none; margin-left: none=
; border-right-width: 0px; border-left-style: none; box-sizing:border=
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padding-right: 0.7576px !important; border-top-style: none; font-siz=
e: 10.1389px; "> Maya Culture & History Belize's first and most endur=
ing inhabitants, the Maya, left a rich legacy of art, science and mathemati=
cs that continues to unfold and astound us. Much of this ancient knowledge =
was lost when Spanish conquistadors laid waste to the extensive Maya librar=
ies and administrative centres, but, fortunately, the Maya recorded parts o=
f their history and predictions in stone inscriptions that can be seen toda=
y in stelae and the remains of elaborate cities, buildings and temples that=
survived centuries of jungle encroachment. It was only relatively recently=
that Maya writing, or glyphs, were deciphered and the richness of this adv=
anced jungle civilisation came to light. Archaeologists and linguists conti=
nue to unravel the ancient riddles of Maya civilisation, and we now have a =
better picture of this intricate, enigmatic civilisation. History of the Ma=
yans Today's Maya are descendants of nomadic people who settled in Belize, =
Guatemala, Mexico's Yucatan Peninsula, El Salvador and Honduras. While the =
beginning of the early habitation is open to debate, the Maya Long Count Ca=
lendar gives a Maya creation date of 11 August, 3114 BC, and traces of Maya=
habitation at Cuello, in Belize, were recently carbon dated to around 2600=
BC. The Maya Early Preclassic period, from which we have some of the earli=
est examples of Maya pottery and art, lasted from 1800-900 B.C., and throug=
hout the Middle Preclassic Maya (900-300 B.C.) the civilisation continued t=
o grow, so that by 800 BC, the Maya of the Guatemala Highlands controlled t=
he important jade and obsidian trade routes to the Petén and t=
he Pacific, and by 600 BC were producing and trading cacao. Mayan Civilizat=
ion During the Late Preclassic Maya period (300BC- AD 300), the Maya civili=
sation continued to flourish as trade routes expanded along with advances i=
n the cultivation of corn and the beginning of more complex agricultural pr=
actices, as well as construction of pyramids and urban centres. Maya societ=
y continued to develop based on an intricate cosmology that resulted in com=
plex calendars, writing and astute mathematical calculations. Maya civilisa=
tion advanced to new heights throughout the Classic period of 250 to 900 AD=
, a time of intellectual, artistic and political development that establish=
ed the Maya as one of the most advanced civilisations in the world. It was =
during this time that Tikal, Caracol, Palenque, Altun Ha, Copá=
;n and other remarkable city states were established and flourished. Innova=
tion in arts, medicine and sciences, especially in the areas of mathematics=
and astronomy were phenomenal. For example, by 36 BC the Maya developed th=
e concept of zero â?? an impressive feat which allowed them to work w=
ith heretofore unimaginable sums and dates, and was the basis for astronomi=
cal observations and calculations extremely accurate even by today's standa=
rds. In fact, the Maya measurement of the solar year is slightly more accur=
ate than the Georgian Calendar used today. In addition to reflecting a spir=
itual world, Maya urban centres were efficiently and pragmatically designed=
, with the most advanced agricultural practices, water systems and food sto=
rage systems in the Americas. While the rich rainforests of Belize and surr=
ounding areas provided an abundance of game and edible and medicinal plants=
, and the rivers and seacoast teemed with fish and marine life, the Maya al=
so developed their own crops, fish ponds and irrigation systems. Caracol, h=
ome to what is still the tallest man-made structure in Belize, had a sophis=
ticated water catchment system visible today. These large metropolises, cha=
racterised by imposing temples, broad causeways and open air plazas were al=
so important trade centres. The Maya were enthusiastic long distance trader=
s, bartering jade, obsidian, cacao, salt and sea shell for gold and other g=
oods from as far away as Panama and the gulf coast of Mexico. While relativ=
ely little remains of their maritime history, the Classic Maya most certain=
ly had extensive trading sea routes and were able sailors. As the underworl=
d was of particular importance in the Maya cosmology, a vast network of cer=
emonial caves was established for worship, sacrifice, and divination. This =
Maya sacred cave system is well preserved and can be seen in Belize today. =
The intricacies of Maya society during the Preclassic and Classic periods a=
re also [subject to debate, but city-states appear to have consisted of sma=
ll family settlements of people centred around a royal household dominated =
by a king â??the Kuhul Ajaw - and his court. The royal family, as int=
ermediaries between the gods and interpreters of time and celestial events,=
dictated the social, political and religious functions of their polities. =
They also established complex relations, alliances and intrigues with neigh=
bouring city-states, and warfare and slave taking were not uncommon. The Ku=
hul Ajaw power at home was celebrated â?? and cemented - with elabora=
te rituals including human sacrifice and the renowned Maya ball games. The =
great Maya centres of the southern lowlands began to decline between 700 an=
d 900 AD, and while no one know exactly why, several theories have been adv=
anced. Some scholars suggest overpopulation and collapse of the ecosystem a=
s the main cause, or disease epidemics, environmental disaster and other in=
ternal shocks, while others propose scenarios that involve foreign invasion=
, the collapse of trade and other external forces. A 200 year drought combi=
ned with exhaustion of agricultural and natural resources has more recently=
gained wide acceptance as the most likely cause for the decline of the May=
a civilisation. At any rate, the glorious days of the expansion of Maya emp=
ire were over. The Postclassic period (900 â?? 1500) saw development =
in northern areas, especially in Yucatan cities such as Chichen Itza. The L=
ake Petén Itza ruled over an area which includes present day F=
lores near the Belize border. However, strife increased between competing c=
ity-states and the Maya Empire was in disarray by the time it was conquered=
by the Spanish in the 17thcentury. The Spanish conquest of the Maya was a =
long and brutal campaign. Because there was no central ruler or government,=
the smaller Maya city-states had to be taken and controlled one by one, an=
d they put up fierce resistance until the last Maya states were subdued in =
1697, effectively spelling the end of Maya self rule. </p> =20
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